Amphibious vehicle

Nautilus is a name given to some ships and submarines:

 

• Nautilus (1800 submarine), first practical submarine invented by Robert Fulton
• Nautilus (Verne), famous fictional submarine in Jules Verne's 1870 novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (and its many adaptations)
• HMS Nautilus, 10 vessels of the British Royal Navy
• USS Nautilus, 6 vessels of the United States Navy
• Nautilus, the Spanish training ship commanded by Fernando Villaamil which fulfilled a world circumnavigation in 1892-1894

See Ships named Nautilus for more.

Nautilus is also the name of:

• Nautilus (computer game), a submarine computer game for the Atari 8-bit family
• Nautilus (board game), a submarine-themed German-style board game
• Nautilus (file manager), the official file manager for the GNOME desktop
• Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability, a public policy think-tank addressing security and sustainability issues
• Nautilus laser, a weapon system to intercept long-range missiles
• Nautilus Pompilius (band), a Russian rock group
• Nautilus (secure telephone), an early secure telephony softphone
• Nautilus (web application), a web based Customer relationshipmanagement software
• Nautilus, a previous designation of the BA 330inflatablespace module
• Nautilus, Inc., founded by Arthur Jones, a producer of exercise equipment, including Nautilus, Bowflex, Schwinn Fitness and Stairmaster. May also refer to the Nautilus Institute, a research-based initiative of Nautilus, Inc.
• Nautilus, Japanese video game developer, formerly Sacnoth
• Nautilus Federation, comprising Nautilus UK and Nautilus NL, affiliated trade unions representing workers in the marine sector in the United Kingdom and Netherlands.
• The Nautilus (journal) - malacological journal
• Nautilus (magazine), a german fantasy and science fiction magazine
• Nautilus (counterculture publisher), an Italian publisher on counterculture based in Turin.
• Edizioni Nautilus Torino, an Italian publisher on Anthropology based in Turin.

Nautilus may also be:

• a product line of speakers produced by Bowers & Wilkins (B&W)
• the codename for the VAX-8800 family of computer systems from Digital Equipment Corporation
• Nautilus (song) - a popular song by jazz musician Bob James
• the name of the company "Parfums Nautilus", from Venezia, Italy.

PASKAL, an abbreviation for Pasukan Khas Laut (Naval Special Forces) is the elite special operations force of the Royal Malaysian Navy, which conducts unconventional warfare, guerrilla warfare, jungle warfare, direct action, counter-terrorism, close protection for VIPs, specific enemy assassination, hostage rescue, and special reconnaissance as well as foreign internal defense.

 

It was officially established on October 1st 1980, after a five-year setting-up period, with the purpose of enforcing Malaysia's Exclusive Economic Zone maritime claims through sea, air and land operations (similar to the United States Navy SEALs).

 

Organisation

The manpower details of this unit is highly classified. Believed to be a regiment with an estimated 1,000 men divided into two operations units - PASKAL Unit Satu (PASKAL - First Unit) based in the Lumut Naval base in Perak on Peninsular Malaysia, and PASKAL Unit Dua (PASKAL - 2nd Unit) which is based at KD Sri Semporna, a Malaysian Royal Navy base in Semporna, Sabah. A company-strength (detachment) is also based at the Teluk Sepanggar Naval Base near Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, where the RMN's proposed Submarine Training Centre will be set up soon.

PASKAL organizes itself operationally into several squadrons of at least three companies (or Platoons) each. Each company is in turn, organised roughly along the lines of the US Green Berets' structure of Alpha, Bravo and Charlie Detachments. The smallest unit for Paskal, however, is the so-called Boat Troop with 7 men.

Basically each squadron contains a mixture of specialists that is usually adjusted by the specifics of the mission or area it is tasked to operate within.

Each squadron normally carries a Combat Intelligence Team (Malay: Tim Risik Gempur, TRG), trained in maritime tactical intelligence, counter-intelligence and psychological operations.

 

History

The history of PASKAL began in 1975, when the Royal Malaysian Navy saw the need for a security regiment trained in modern maritime warfare. Its main purpose was originally to protect naval bases and national assets all over Malaysia. At that time, the RMN main base was known as KD Malaya (Kapal Diraja Malaya, His Majesty's Ship Malaya), formerly known as HMS Malaya before independence, in Woodlands, Singapore (which was later transferred to the new naval base in Lumut, Perak when it was completed in 1979.

The first batch of 30 officers, led by Captain Sutarji Kasmin (now Admiral, retired), was sent to the Malaysian Army's Special Warfare Training Center (Pusat Latihan Peperangan Khas) located at Sg Udang Military Camp, Melaka, and were trained by Grup Gerak Khas army commandos.

They were also trained by instructors from Indonesian Navy KOPASKA¹, UK Royal Marines Commando and US Navy SEALs.

In the year 1979, one of the 69 personnels of RMN failed to complete the course due to broken leg sustained during training in Basic Jungle Commando Course in Indonesia. A few men, including RMN officer, Lieutenant Commander Ahmad Ramli Kardi traveled to Colorado, California and Norfolk, Virginia to be trained by the US Navy SEAL.

 

Purposes

On October 1, 1980, PASKAL was officially established as the Malaysian Government began to enforce its EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) which covers 200 nautical miles off Malaysian waters. In addition, there was a requirement to protect Malaysian offshore stations near the disputed Spratly Islands.

 

Roles

One of PASKAL's roles is to launch offensive operations independently via sea, land and air in enemy controlled waters. PASKAL operatives were trained to conduct maritime operations such as anti-piracy and anti-ship / oil rig hijacking.

The security of more than thirty offshore oil rigs in Malaysian waters are solely the responsibility of PASKAL, and the unit has held regular training exercises on each of those oil rigs.

Although part of PASKAL's mission consists of securing beachheads, deep penetration reconnaissance raids, structure and underwater demolition and sabotage, their range of training and activity extends beyond.

PASKAL's repertoire also includes in-harbour underwater sabotage, ship-boarding assault, Counter-Terrorist missions (CT), special infiltration tactics behind enemy lines and mine-clearing operations.

Special joint training with special Army units are also conducted regularly on specialised skills like HALO and HAHO overwater and overland parachute jumps.²

PASKAL detachments are also stationed on sensitive Malaysian offshore stations particularly in Layang-Layang atoll and a few detachments are also permanently staged on several RMN's ships.³

 

Training

As a Special Forces unit, PASKAL's personnel must be mentally and physically agile. Every new trainee is required to undergo three months of basic commando training at the Royal Malaysian Navy's (RMN) Lumut Naval Base. As criteria to join the naval Special Forces, all personnel must be younger than 30 years old and have a good health record.

Upon completing the course, they will be sent to the Special Warfare Training Centre (SWTC) in Sungai Udang, Melaka to undergo basic parachuting.

Those who pass the gruelling training process will continue to the Advanced First Class training where they are given specialised courses in several fields such as medic, communications, explosives and electrical??echanical repairing. They are also required to pass a physical test every three months.

Among others, the test consists of:

1. 7.8 km running in 24 minutes (below 24 years of age)
2. 1.5 km swimming in not more than 25 minutes (in a swimming pool)
3. 6.4 km swimming in open sea with full mission load - under 120 minutes
4. Day??ight skydiving at high elevation spots i.e. hills, buildings and on ocean surface.
5. Freestyle swimming for 1.5 km under 31 minutes
6. Surviving in water with hands and feet fully tied up (drown-proofing)
7. Diving without breathing apparatus for a minimum of 7 m in depth

Basic Recruitment Course

1. Pre-Selection/Warm-Up
2. Basic PASKAL commando
3. Diving endurance
4. Basic Sky-Diving

Carrier Development Course

1. First Class enrollment
2. Underwater Combat Maneuver
3. "Laskar Kanan" enrollment
4. "Bintara Muda" enrollment
5. Diving/Underwater Combat Superior

PASKAL routinely sends officers and men to train with the SAS/UK, NGSLO, BUD/SEAL, EOD (USA), Submarine Escape (Australia), Assault Swimmer and Australia, Clearance Diver (Australia/USA), Sniper Supervisor (Australia), Mountain Climbing (France), SASR Australia, etc.

On 26 August 1991, the National Security Council declared PASKAL as Malaysia's main counter-terrorist task force for the defense of oil rigs and oil tanker ships and to act as one of the elements in the Quick Reactions Force (QRF), or the Pasukan Aturgerak Cepat (PAC).

 

 

Weaponry and equipment

PASKAL's weapon inventory is a confidential subject. Nevertheless, amid rumors of financing from the consortium of oil companies in addition to ample financing from the navy, PASKAL's inventory currently includes some of the most advanced and sophisticated equipment in the Armed Forces.

The voluntary contributions from the oil consortium has ensured that PASKAL has sufficient means to procure weapons and equipment that are much more modern and sophisticated in comparison to the other SOF units in the Malaysian armed forces.

Pictures taken during national day parades and from local defense magazines indicate the use of the following:

• various night-vision devices,
• lightweight PRO-TEC helmets,
• various thermal-imaging cameras,
• various ground tactical radar MASINT (Measurement and Signature Intelligence) including PSR MASINT,
• various sniper weapons Accuracy International Arctic Warfare, AMP Technical Services DSR-1, M14 rifle, Robar RC-50 and Heckler & Koch MSG-90,
• various sub-machine guns FN P90, Heckler & Koch MP5 in all types and variants,
• various combat shotgun Remington 870 Marine Magnums, and
• various assault rifles including AK-102 (TRG mainly), M4 Carbine SOPMOD Block II with Aimpoint and Trijicon's ACOG 4x sight scopes, FN FNC, and Colt M16A1 (with 20-round Colt-manufactured magazines and M203 grenade launchers).

PASKAL is also known to utilise specialised delivery craft - among others, PASKAL employs high speed inflatable/collapsible sub-skimmers (also known as UDV - Underwater Delivery Vehicle), for infiltrations into hostile areas.

The acquisition of two Scorpene submarines which are jointly being built by DCNS, France and Navantia, Spain ("KD Tunku Abdul Rahman" commissioning January 2009, "KD Tun Razak" commissioning October 2008) is expected to further add PASKAL's capabilities and range.

 

PASKAL Emblems and Badges

Purple Coloured Beret

The purple beret reflects the PASKAL's identity as well as close relationship with the Indonesian Marine Corps.

Camouflage

The PASKAL camouflage uniform is identical to that worn by US Navy SEALs. It also reflects the close relations with this US Special Forces unit from which PASKAL also receives training.

Trimedia

The "Trimedia" is PASKAL's main emblem which is worn by every PASKAL trooper. The various components symbolises:

1. Wing - the traditional symbol for airborne capability
2. Jet Fin & Face Mask Emblem - symbolises seaborne infiltration capability
3. Combat Dagger - symbolises jungle-warfare capability
4. Anchor - the symbol for the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN).

 

List of PASKAL Commanders

List of PASKAL Commander

Name	Year	Remark
Admiral Dr. Haji Sutarji bin Kasmin	1975-2003	PASKAL Commander from 1975 and retired in 2003
First Admiral Nasaruddin bin Othman	2003-Now

 

Notable PASKAL Members

• Admiral Dr. Haji Sutarji Kasmin (retired) ??first commanding officer of PASKAL, considered godfather of PASKALs
• Rear Admiral Nasaruddin Othman ??second commanding officer of PASKAL, replacing Admiral Dr. Haji Sutarji Kasmin
• Captain Jamaludin Mohd Saman RMN
• Commander Abd Malek Hj Mohd Daud RMN
• Commander Ahmad Ramli Kardi ??honored Ahli Mangku Negara, Ahli Mahkota Perak medal
• Commander Anuar Alias ??honored Panglima Gagah Berani medal
• Commander George Paul Thomas Rozario
• Commander Jason PASKAL
• Lieutenant Commander Che Adnan Mat Isa
• Master Chief Petty Officer Mohd Room Bahari
• Seaman Hairi Mat Balong
• PASKAL Senior Seaman Sukeri Abdullah (1994 - 1997)

 

Recent Operations

The unit has been deployed in the following operations:

Operation	Roles	Country	Year
Spratley Islands	Security Mission	Malaysia	1980s
Gugusan Semarang Peninjau	Security Missions	Malaysia	1979
United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II)	Peacekeeping Missions	Somalia	1993 - 1995
United Nations Angola Verification Mission II (UNIVEM II)	Peacekeeping Missions	Angola	1998
Operation Astute	Peacekeeping Missions	Timor-Leste	2006
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (MALCON-UNIFIL)	Peacekeeping Missions	Lebanon	2007
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon II (MALCON-UNIFIL II)	Peacekeeping Missions	Lebanon	2008
Operation Sunset	Hostage Rescue	Somalia	2008 - 2009

Operation Sunset (Ops Fajar)

PASKAL operatives were deployed in the activities subsequent to the hijacking by Somalian pirates of two Malaysian merchant vessels, MISC-owned Bunga Melati 2 and Bunga Melati 5. The PASKAL detachment was tasked to intelligence-gathering and also to provide security to the Malaysian team negotiating the release of both ships and their crew. This operation, codenamed Ops Fajar (Operation Sunset) also involved Royal Malaysian Navy assets comprising KD Lekiu, KD Sri Inderapura, as well as supported elements of Malaysian Army special forces, Grup Gerak Khas as well as some RMAF assets.⁵

The operation was deemed a success after Malaysian special forces paid a ransom amounting to millions of dollars to the pirates.⁶

Rescue Operations of Zhenhua 4 and MV Abul Kalam Azad

December 18, 2008 - The Royal Malaysian Navy swung into action to save a China-registered ship, Zhenhua 4 in the Gulf of Aden on Wednesday, the same day the United Nations Security Council decided to be more assertive against the Somali pirates. The Zhenhua 4 was attacked by the nine armed pirates about noon on Wednesday while sailing in the gulf on its way from Djibouti to China.

Called on by the Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150), the multinational coalition patrolling the pirate-infested gulf, the RMN's KD Sri Indera Sakti despatched a helicopter (including PASKAL naval commando) to the scene. The helicopter fired two warning shots at the pirates' skiff, causing them to call off the attack on the heavy load carrier Zhenhua 4 and flee.⁷⁸

1 January 2009 - PASKAL operatives together with RMN KD Sri Inderasakti, commanding by Captain Mohamad Adib Abdul Samad experienced its first combat in the new year when its Fennec helicopter drove off two pirate skiffs pursuing Indian crude oil tanker MT Abul Kalam Azad in the dangerous pirate-infested Gulf of Aden. Somalia. The 92,000-tonne vessel, with 40 crew members, was heading for the Suez Canal with a full load of crude oil, sailing in the gulf at 11.37am (Malaysian time) when it was attacked by pirates in two skifs. One of the boats had seven men in it, all armed with AK-47s and machineguns. They unleashed a barrage of fire at the bridge and accommodation area of the ship. They also tried to board it, all the while keeping up the attack.

However, the ship began taking evasive measures and increased speed to the maximum. This was also when it issued a distress signal, which was picked up by Malaysian navy support ship KD Sri Indera Sakti about 15 nautical miles away. In rapid response, Captain Mohamad Adib dispatched the ship-borne Fennec helicopter gunship armed with twin general purpose machine guns and an elite Naval Special Forces PASKAL airborne sniper. The Malaysian helicopter was joined by a Eurocopter AS 365 Dauphine-type helicopter of the Royal Saudi Navy, effectively scaring off the pirates.

The captain of the Abul Kalam Azad had initially requested to join the Malaysian International Shipping Corporation convoy, escorted by the Sri Indera Sakti, but later accepted the offer from a Saudi Arabian naval ship to escort it to its destination. International Maritime Bureau Piracy Reporting Centre head Noel Choong said the crew of the Abul Kalam Azad reported seeing the pirates in military-style garb.⁹¹⁰

An amphibious vehicle (or simply amphibian), is a vehicle or craft, that is a means of transport, viable on land as well as on water - just like an amphibian.

 

This definition applies equally to any land and water transport, small or large, powered or unpowered, ranging from amphibious bicycles, ATVs, cars, buses, trucks, RVs, and military vehicles, all the way to the very largest hovercraft. Classic landing craft are generally not considered amphibious vehicles, although they are part of amphibious assault. Nor are Ground effect vehicles, such as Ekranoplans. The former don't offer any real land transportation at all - the latter (aside from completely disconnecting from the surface, like an airplane), will likely crash on any but the flattest of landmasses.

 

General technical notes

Apart from the distinction in sizes mentioned above, two main categories of amphibious vehicle are immediately apparent: those that travel on an air-cushion (Hovercraft) and those that don't. Amongst the latter, many designs were prompted by the desire to expand the off-road capabilities of land-vehicles to an "all-terrain" ability, in some cases not only focused on creating a transport that will work on land and water, but also on intermediates like ice, snow, mud, marsh, swamp etc.. This explains why many designs use tracks in addition to or instead of wheels, and in some cases even resort to articulated body configurations or other unconventional designs such as screw propelled vehicles which use auger-like barrels which propel a vehicle through muddy terrain with a twisting motion. 1, 2

Most land vehicles - even lightly armored ones - can be made amphibious simply by providing them with a waterproof hull and perhaps a propellor. This is possible thanks to the vehicle's volume usually being bigger than its displacement, meaning it will float. Heavily armored vehicles however sometimes have a density greater than water (their weight in kilograms exceeds their volume in liters), and will need additional buoyancy measures. These can take the form ofinflatablefloatation devices, much like the sides of a rubber dinghy, or a waterproof fabric skirt raised from the top perimeter of the vehicle.

In the case of the Land Rover pictured to the side, floats in the shape of oil-drums have been used to create a vehicle that will swim much like an improvised raft.

For propulsion in or on the water some vehicles simply make do by spinning their wheels or tracks, while others can power their way forward more effectively using (additional) screw propellor(s) or water jet(s). Most amphibians will work only as a displacement hull when in the water - only a small number of designs have the capability to raise out of the water when speed is gained, to achieve high velocity hydroplaning, skimming over the water surface like speedboats.

 

History

Some of the earliest known amphibious vehicles were amphibious carriages, the invention of which is cred to the notorious Neapolitan Prince Raimondo di Sangro of Sansevero (ca. 1750) or Sir Samuel Bentham (1781).

The first known self-propelled amphibious vehicle, a steam-powered wheeled dredging barge, named the Orukter Amphibolos, was conceived and built by United States inventor Oliver Evans in 1805, although it is disputed to have successfully travelled over land or water under its own steam3.

Although it is unclear who (and where and when) built the first combustion-engined amphibian, in all likelihood the development of powered amphibious vehicles didn't start until 1899. Until the late 1920s the efforts to unify a boat and an automobile mostly came down to simply putting wheels and axles on a boat hull, or getting a rolling chassis to float by blending a boat-like hull with the car's frame (Pohl, 1998). One of the first reasonably well documented cases was the 1905 amphibious petrol-powered carriage of T. Richmond (Jessup, Iowa, USA). Just like the world's first petrol-powered automobile (1885, Carl Benz) it was a three-wheeler. The single front wheel provided direction, both on land and in the water. A three-cylinder petrol combustion-engine powered the oversized rear wheels. In order to get the wheels to provide propulsion in the water, fins or buckets would be attached to the rear wheel spokes. Remarkably the boat-like hull was one of the first integral bodies ever used on a car (Pohl, 1998).

Since the 1920s development of amphibious vehicles greatly diversified. Numerous designs have been created for a broad range of applications, including recreation, expions, search & rescue, and military, leading to a myriad of concepts and variants. In some of them the amphibious capabilities are central to their purpose, whereas in others they are only an expansion to what has remained primarily a watercraft or a land vehicle.

 

Small wheeled amphibians

Amongst the smallest non air-cushioned amphibious vehicles are amphibious bicycles, (see also) and ATVs. Although the former are still an absolute rarity, the latter saw significant popularity in North America during the nineteen sixties and early seventies. Typically an Amphibious ATV or AATV is a small, lightweight, off-highway vehicle, constructed from an integral hard plastic or fibreglass bodytub, fitted with six (sometimes eight) driven wheels, with low pressure, balloon tires. With no suspension (other than what the tires offer) and no steering wheels, directional control is accomplished through skid-steering - just as on a tracked vehicle - either by braking the wheels on the side where you want to turn, or by applying more throttle to the wheels on the opposite side. Most contemporary designs use garden tractor type engines, that will provide roughly 25 mph top speed on land.

Constructed this way, an AATV will float with ample freeboard and is capable of traversing swamps, ponds and streams as well as dry land. On land these units have high grip and great off-road ability, that can be further enhanced with an optional set of tracks that can be mounted directly onto the wheels. Although the spinning action of the tires is enough to propel the vehicle through the water - albeit slowly - outboard motors can be added for extended water use. Current AATV manufacturers are Argo, Land Tamer, MAX ATVs and Triton.
Articulated-body designs in this category were the Coot and the very similar TAG Croco.

Recently some efforts are made towards amphibious ATV's of the straddled variety. For instance in the form of an add-oninflatablepontoon kit, that can be installed on any quad-bike ATV with front and rear metal frame racks and at least 14" water fording ability. A new development was shown in 2006 by Gibbs Technologies. Their Quadski is a prototype for a cross between a Jetski and a Quad-bike.

 

Amphibious cars

Amphibious automobiles have been conceived from ca. 1900, however the Second World War significantly stimulated their development. Two of the most significant amphibious cars to date were developed during World War II. The most proliferous was the German Schwimmwagen, a small jeep-like 4x4 vehicle designed by the Porsche engineering firm in 1942 and widely used in World War II. The amphibious bodywork was designed by Erwin Komenda, the firm's body construction designer, using the engine and drive train of the Kübelwagen. An amphibious version of the Willys MB jeep, the Ford GPA or 'Seep' (short for Sea jeep) was developed during World War II as well. A specially modified GPA, called Half-Safe, was driven and sailed around the world by Australian Ben Carlin in the 1950s.
One of the most capable post-war amphibious off-roaders was the German Amphi-Ranger, that featured a hull made of seawater-resistant AlMg2 aluminium alloy. Extensively engineered, this costly vehicle was proven seaworthy at a Gale force 10 storm off the North Sea coast (Pohl, 1998). Only about 100 were built - those who own one have found it capable of crossing the English Channel almost effortlessly.

Purely recreational amphibian cars include the 1960s Amphicar and the contemporary Gibbs Aquada. With almost 4.000 pieces built, the Amphicar is still the most successfully produced civilian amphibious car to date. The Gibbs Aquada stands out due to its capability of high speed planing on water.

Other amphibious cars currently in production include the Dutton Commander 'AmphiJeep' (GB), the US Hydra Spyder and WaterCar, as well as several Chinese designs like the JMC BY5020TSL (see also) and BJ5032(XZHE), and the even longer JMC JX5021TLYDS. American distributor Rodedawg is now seeking to bring an adapted version of the Chinese amphibs to America.

 

Amphibious cycles

An Amphibious Cycle is capable of operation on both land and water. The design which has probably received the most coverage is Saidullah’s Bicycle¹. This has been featured on both the Discovery Channel and BBC News. The bike uses four rectangular air filled floats for buoyancy, and is propelled using two fan blades which have been attached to the spokes. Moraga’s Cyclo Amphibious ² uses a simple tricycle frame to support three floaters which provide both the floatation and thrust. The wings on the powered wheels propel the vehicle in a similar way to a paddle wheel.

The most recent attempt, featured in the Southern Daily Echo (5 June 2008) and The Daily Telegraph (6 June 2008) is that of seven engineering students at the University of Southampton ³. The Amphibious Cycle combines a recumbent frame with separate floats, and is propelled using a paddle wheel. A speed test on water achieved an average speed of 1.12 m/s. The cyclist was able to transition the cycle both into and out of the water unassisted. This elegant prototype has a real application in urban areas of flooding, as well as applications in the leisure industry.

 

Amphibious buses

Amphibious buses are employed in some locations as a tourist attraction. A recent design is the AmphiCoach GTS-1.

 

Amphibious trucks and barges

With more than 20.000 units produced, the DUKW was the most successful amphibious truck of World War II. This 31-foot 6x6 truck was deployed in the Pacific theatre to establish and supply beachheads. It was designed as a wartime project by Sparkman & Stephens, the famous yacht design firm who also designed the hull for the Ford GPA 'Seep'. During the war, Germany produced the Landwasserschlepper and Schwimmwagen, and in the '50s, the Soviets developed the GAZ 46, BAV 485, and PTS.

During the Vietnam War, the US Army used the amphibious articulated Gama Goat and the larger Caterpillar 'Goer' truck-series to move supplies through the canals and rice paddies of Southeast Asia. The latter was based on a 1950s civil construction vehicle and became the US Army’s standard heavy tactical truck before its replacement by the HEMTT. Although the vehicles' wheels were mounted without suspension or steering action, and land speeds over 20 mph were ill-advised, its articulated design provided it with good maneuverability and helped it to keep all four wheels firmly in touch with uneven ground. Coupled with its amphibious capability, in the Vietnam War (especially during raining season), the M520 Goer developed a reputation of being able to go where other trucks could not.

For taking vehicles and supplies onto the beaches the US used the 1950s designed LARC-V and the huge LARC-LX or "BARC". At 63 feet long and 27 feet wide the latter is one of the largest wheeled amphibians to date. It could carry up to 100 tons of cargo or 200 people, but a more typical load was 60 tons of cargo or 120 people. The vehicle was powered by four V8 diesel engines positioned in the sides of the hull, each driving a single 8-foot wheel.

The United Kingdom used the 6x6 wheeled Alvis Stalwart as their amphibious cargo carrier. This highly mobile 5-ton truck entered service with the British Army in 1966. In the water it was driven by vectored thrust water-jet propulsion units at about 6 knots.

American manufacturer Terrawind currently offers civilian amphibious buses and motorcoaches.

EWK Eisenwerke Kaiserslautern GmbH (now General Dynamics European Land Systems) developed a unique amphibious vehicle, the M3 Amphibious Rig, that can be used as a ferry and as a floating bridge for trucks and heavy combat vehicles.

LARC-LX (BARC) amphibious barge unloading a 5-ton LARC-V truck	LARC-LX (BARC) amphibious vehicle at Sea, powered by two 4-feet propellors	Alvis Stalwart heavy-duty military truck	Alvis Stalwart HMLC Mk.2 (FV 622)
M561 'Gama Goat' articulated amphibian truck

 

Wheeled armored vehicles

Many modern military vehicles, ranging from light wheeled command and reconnaissance, through armoured personnel carriers and tanks, are manufactured with amphibious capabilities. Contemporary examples of wheeled armored amphibians are the French Panhard VBL and GIAT Industries VAB.
The VBL (Véhicule Blindé Léger or "Light armoured vehicle") is a compact, lightly-armored 4x4 all-terrain vehicle that is fully amphibious and can swim at 5.4 km/h. The VAB (Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé or "Armored Vanguard Vehicle") is a fully amphibious Armoured personnel carrier (APC), powered in the water by two water jets, mounted one on either side of the rear hull (see detail picture above). It entered service in 1976 and around 5000 were produced in numerous configurations, ranging from basic personnel carrier, anti-tank missile platform to riot control versions with a water cannon.
During the Cold War the Soviet bloc states developed a number of amphibious APCs, fighting vehicles and tanks, both wheeled and tracked. Wheeled examples are the BRDM-1 and BRDM-2 4x4 armored scout cars, as well as the BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 and BTR-94 8x8 armored personnel carriers and the BTR-90 infantry fighting vehicle.

Panhard VBL during French national holiday parade	VBL fitted with MILAN anti-tank weapon	VAB Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé	VAB rear - water jet pods clearly visible
A French Marine VAB takes the beach	Soviet BRDM-1 amphibious armored scout car	BRDM-2 armored command vehicle in Yad la-Shiryon Museum, Israel, 2005	Soviet BTR-60 APC in Yad la-Shiryon Museum, Israel, 2005
Russian KFOR BTR-80 (Kosovo, 2000)

 

Tracked unarmored vehicles

The M29 Weasel (Studebaker Weasel), whilst originally designed as a snow vehicle, operated successfully in amphibious role by the addition of front and rear floats. The basic vehicle will float but its bow is square so the additional floats add stability and load carrying capacity.

 

Tracked armored vehicles and tanks

Among tracked armored vehicles with amphibious capabilities are first of all those that are intended for use in amphibious assault. The United States started developing a long line of LVT (Landing Vehicle Tracked) designs from ca. 1940. The US Marine Corps currently uses the AAV7-A1 Amphibious Assault Vehicle, which is to be succeeded by the Expionary Fighting Vehicle (previously AAAV), which is capable of planing on water and can achieve water speeds of 37 - 46 km/h.
A significant amount of tracked armored vehicles that are primarily intended for land-use, such as Armoured fighting vehicles and Infantry fighting vehicles nevertheless also have amphibious ability, tactically useful inland, reducing dependence on destroyable and easily-targeted bridges. To provide motive power, they use their tracks, sometimes with added propellor or water jets. As long as the opposite bank has a shallow enough slope for the APC, AFV or IFV to climb out within a few miles, they can cross rivers and water obstacles. American examples are the M113 Armored Personnel Carrier and the M2 Bradley. Soviet examples are the PT-76 amphibious tank, and the BTR-50 and MT-LB APCs based on its chassis.

Some heavy tanks have an amphibious mode in which a fabric skirt is needed to add buoyancy. The Sherman DD tank used in the D-Day invasion had this setup. When in water the waterproof float screen was raised and propellers deployed. The M2 and M3 Bradleys also need such a skirt.

 

Amphibious tanks

In World War II the British developed amphibious tanks. First the Valentine, then the M4 Medium tank (named the Sherman by the British) were made amphibious with the addition of a rubberized canvas screen to provide additional buoyancy and propellers driven by the main engine to give propulsion. These were DD tanks (from "Duplex Drive") and the Sherman DD was used on D-Day to provide close fire support on the beaches during the initial landings. The Sherman DD could not fire when afloat as the buoyancy screen was higher than the gun. A number swamped and sank in the operation, due to rough weather in the English Channel (with some tanks having been launched too far out), and to turning in the current to converge on a specific point on the battlefield, which allowed waves to breach over the screens. Those making it ashore, however, provided essential fire support in the first critical hours.

Some light tanks such as the PT-76 are amphibious, typically being propelled in the water by hydrojets or by their tracks. In 1969, the U.S. Army rushed the new M551 Sheridan to Vietnam. This 17 ton light tank was built with an aluminium hull, steel turret and gun (although the 152 mm gun was called a "launcher" at the time), and could swim across bodies of water. Because the U.S. Army had done away with the old heavy, medium, and light tank classifications prior to the Vietnam War, and had adopted the Main Battle Tank (MBT) system, the M551 was officially classified as an Airborne Reconnaissance Assault Vehicle. The M551 upon arrival in Vietnam began replacing the M48A3 Patton in all cavalry squadrons, leaving only the M48A3 in the U.S. Army's three armored battalions in Vietnam, the 1/77th, 1/69th, and the 2/34th Armor. However, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment did retain some M48s, as they were the only full regiment in country. Armor Crewmen Trainees at the U.S. Army's Armor School at Fort Knox Kentucky, at the time of the Sheridan entering service, were specifically instructed to refer to the Sheridan by its designated nomenclature. However, for nearly everyone today, civilian and military alike, the Sheridan is a "light tank." The Sheridan needed no modifications for river crossings, crewmen simply raised the cloth sides that were tucked inside rubber tubes along the hull's upper edges, raised the driver's front shield which had a acrylic glass window, the driver turned on his bilge pumps, shifted his transmission lever to water operations and the Sheridan entered the water. For newly arrived Sheridans, this might work as engineered. For "war weary" M551s, the driver's window was often "yellowed" and/or cracked as to obscure his vision, and the rubber tubes that contained the rolled up side sleeves were often cracked and/or frozen into place. The Sheridan could still cross a body of water, but like its swimming cousin, the M113 APC (Armoured Personnel Carrier, also built of aluminium) the river had to be narrow, less than 100 yards (100 m). In all cases, the bilge pumps had to be working properly, and even then by the time the Sheridan or the APC reached the other side, water would often fill the insides up to their armoured roofs, spilling through the hatches' cracks and emptying onto the earth once safely ashore. Often a fold down trim vane is erected to stop water washing over the bow of the tank and thus reducing the risk of the vehicle being swamped via the driver's hatch.

 

Deep fording

Some military vehicles are not truly amphibious but are capable of "wading" using waterproof screens to keep the upper hull dry. In World War II the tanks following the Sherman DDs were given waterproofed hulls and trunking was fixed to the engine intakes and exhausts to allow them to come ashore from landing craft in shallow water. The Germans gave their Tiger tank a long snorkel, essentially a long tube on the commanders hatch that allowed it to wade through four metres of water.

The Leopard 2 tank carries a snorkel that is in fact a series of rings which can be stacked to create a long tube. This tube is then fitted to the crew commander's hatch and provides air and an escape route for the crew. The height of the tube is limited to around three meters.

All modern Soviet/Russian tanks like the T-90 are also able to perform deep fording operations, however unlike the Leopard, the Russian snorkel is only a few inches round and does not provide a crew escape path, although it is more practical and can be stored on the tank.

LVT 'Buffalos' taking Canadian troops across the Scheldt (Netherlands, 1944).	Expionary Fighting Vehicle at speed in water	1944 Sherman DD (Duplex Drive) amphibious tank with float screens	M2 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle exiting the water (1983)
Polish PT-76 amphibious light tank coming out of the water during an exercise	Soviet PT-76 amphibious tank in Yad la-Shiryon Museum, Israel	BTR-50PK APC in Yad la-Shiryon Museum, Israel, 2005	MT-LB Armoured personnel carrier

 

Articulated and multi-unit tracked amphibians

The unique capability that distinguishes multi-unit vehicles from single unit ones, is the ability to help each other. According to a 1999 article in Military Parade magazine, multi-unit, all-terrain transport vehicles were first proposed by the British in 1913, and by the 1950s, over 40 types of articulated tracked vehicles (ATVs) were in production. The articulated tracked concept is chosen primarily for its combination of high maneuverability, cross-country abilities, and remarkable load-carrying capacity. In some cases the design is made amphibious, giving them all-terrain capability in the truest sense. Usually the front unit houses at least the engine, gearboxes, fuel tank(s) and the driver's compartment, and perhaps there is some space left for cargo or passengers, whereas the rear unit is the primary load carrier.
Examples of this concept are the Russian Vityaz DT-(10/20/30)P models, the Swedish Volvo Bv202 and Hagglunds Bv206 designs, and Singapore Bronco ATTC (All-Terrain Tracked Carrier).

A highly specialised development is the Arktos expion and evacuation craft, that uses a linkage with two joints to connect the two units, as well as fitting each unit with its own engine, to give each unit enhanced independence of movement.

 

Hovercraft

For certain applications wheeled and tracked amphibious vehicles are slowly being supplanted by air-cushioned landing craft in many modern militaries. An air-cushion vehicle (ACV) or hovercraft is designed for traveling over land or water supported by a cushion of slow moving, low-pressure air ejected downwards against the surface below it. In principle a hovercraft can travel over any sufficiently smooth surface, solid, liquid, mixed, or anything in between. Considering that hovercraft can be quite large, some riding on an air-cushion contained by skirts several meters tall, these can deal with a reasonable level of unevenness in the terrain, unfazed by obstacles 1 to 2 meters in height. On the other hand the smallest personal hovercraft―ACVs no bigger than a compact hatchback―are nimble enough to follow some rolling of the terrain just as easily.

One of the benefits of this type of amphibious craft is the possibility of making them large―the British-built SR-N4 Mk-3 Channel-crossing ferries were 56.4 m (185 ft) in length and 23.8 m (78 ft) wide. Other benefits of ACVs include their very high water speed (an SR-N4 Mk-1 could do 83 knots (95 mph or 154 km/h !) and the fact that they can make the transition from land to water (or vice versa) at speed―contrary to most wheeled or tracked amphibians. Drawbacks are high fuel consumption and noise levels.

For military purposes, the hovercraft's ability to distribute its laden weight evenly across the surface below it makes it perfectly suited to the role of amphibious landing craft. The US Navy LCAC can take troops and materials (if necessary an M1 Abrams tank) from ship to shore and can access more than 70% of the world's coastline, as opposed to conventional landing craft, that have only about 17% of that coastline available to them for landing.